Economy: Towns, Trade, and Urban Life (Ancient India)

The Earliest Tamil Compositions (Sangam literature context)

To understand the history of South India, particularly the period around 2000 years ago, historians rely on various sources, including archaeological evidence, inscriptions, and literature. The Sangam literature, composed in Tamil, is a crucial source for reconstructing the history of the early kingdoms (Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas) and society in South India during this period.

Sangam Literature:

• Sangam literature is a collection of poems composed by poets who assembled in 'Sangams' (assemblies) in Madurai, the capital of the Pandya kingdom.
• It comprises thousands of poems, divided into different categories (e.g., Ettuttokai - eight anthologies, Pattuppattu - ten idylls).
• The core of Sangam literature is generally dated to the period between the 3rd century BCE and 3rd century CE (roughly 2300 to 1700 years ago).

Significance for History:

• Provides insights into the life, society, economy, and political organisation of the early South Indian kingdoms (Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas).
• Describes aspects like agriculture, trade (both internal and external), different social groups, warfare, religious beliefs, and the relationship between chiefs/kings and poets/people.
• Mentions cities, ports, markets, and goods traded.
• Offers a glimpse into the cultural values, emotions, and daily experiences of the people through poems on love, war, and nature.

Sangam literature is a valuable indigenous source that complements archaeological evidence and accounts by foreign travellers, helping historians understand the early history of South India and its urban centres, economy, and culture.

Finding Out About Cities: Stories, Travellers, Sculpture And Archaeology

Understanding ancient Indian cities requires drawing information from diverse sources. Cities were vibrant centres of economic, social, and cultural activity, and different types of evidence shed light on different aspects of urban life.

Sources for Studying Ancient Cities:

• Jataka Stories: These are stories about the previous lives of the Buddha, often composed during the period of Mahajanapadas and later (around 2500 years ago onwards). Some stories are set in cities and provide glimpses into urban life, occupations, social interactions, and beliefs. While primarily religious narratives, they can contain details reflecting contemporary society.
• Accounts by foreign travellers: Visitors from other lands (e.g., Megasthenes, Fa Xian, Xuanzang) described the cities they visited, their layout, important buildings, markets, people, and customs. Their observations provide external perspectives.
• Sculpture: Carvings on the railings and gateways of stupas (e.g., Sanchi, Bharhut) or on temple walls often depict scenes of city life, people in different occupations, social gatherings, and buildings. These visual representations are valuable sources for understanding urban environments and daily life.
• Archaeology: Excavations of ancient city sites (e.g., Patliputra, Kaushambi, Ujjain, Arikamedu) reveal the remains of buildings, streets, drains, pottery, tools, coins, and other artifacts. These material remains provide direct evidence of urban planning, architecture, technology, economy, and daily activities.

The Clever Poor Man

This likely refers to a Jataka story that illustrates aspects of urban life, trade, or social interaction in ancient Indian cities. Such stories, while fictional, can contain details that reflect the economic activities, social conditions, and ingenuity of people living in urban centres of that time.

For instance, a story about a clever poor man making his fortune in the city through trade or a skill might reflect the opportunities and challenges of urban life and the importance of commerce.

The Story Of Barygaza

Barygaza is the ancient Greek name for the port city of Bharuch on the coast of Gujarat. Its description in ancient texts, particularly Greek sources, provides insights into its importance as a trading port.

• The Greek text 'Periplus of the Erythraean Sea' (an anonymous work by a Greek merchant from the 1st century CE) provides a detailed account of trade routes and ports along the Indian Ocean, including Barygaza.
• The Periplus describes Barygaza as a major port for trade with the Roman Empire and other regions.
• It lists the types of goods imported (wine, copper, tin, lead, coral, topaz, etc.) and exported (spices, ivory, cotton cloth, silk, etc.) from Barygaza.
• It also mentions the rulers of the region and the people involved in trade.

The story of Barygaza, as told by sources like the Periplus, highlights the crucial role of port cities and maritime trade in the ancient Indian economy and its connections with the wider world.

Coins (Ancient)

Coins are one of the most important archaeological sources for understanding the economy and political history of ancient India, particularly from the 6th century BCE onwards. The emergence of coinage facilitated trade and economic transactions.

Early Coinage (Punch Marked Coins):

• The earliest coins used in India were Punch Marked Coins, dating back to the period of Mahajanapadas (around 6th century BCE).
• These coins were pieces of silver or copper punched with symbols. They do not have inscriptions of rulers' names.
• They are found across a large part of the subcontinent, indicating widespread use of currency.

Later Coinage:

• From the post-Mauryan period onwards, rulers (e.g., Indo-Greeks, Kushanas, Guptas, Satavahanas) issued coins with the names and images of rulers, dates, and inscriptions in various languages and scripts (Greek, Brahmi, Kharosthi, Sanskrit).
• Different dynasties issued coins in gold, silver, and copper. The Gupta period is known for its abundant gold coins.

*(Image shows photographs of Punch Marked Coins, an Indo-Greek coin with ruler's portrait, and a Gupta gold coin)*

Information from Coins:

• Political History: Names and portraits of rulers and dynasties, extent of their rule (where coins are found).
• Economic History: Material used (gold, silver, copper), purity of metal, weight standards (indicating economic stability or fluctuation), symbols related to trade or economy. Abundance of coins can suggest flourishing trade.
• Religious Beliefs: Depiction of deities or religious symbols.
• Art and Craftsmanship: The quality of engraving and design reflects the artistic skills of the time.
• Scripts and Languages: Inscriptions on coins provide examples of scripts and languages used.

Other Means Of Exchange

While coins became increasingly important, other forms of exchange also existed:

• Barter system: Exchanging goods for goods. Continued to be used, especially in local trade or rural areas.
• Cowrie shells: Used as currency in some regions, particularly for small transactions.
• Other valuable commodities: Sometimes, specific commodities (like grains, cattle) might have been used as a standard of value in certain contexts.

The development and widespread use of coinage facilitated the growth of trade and the urban economy in ancient India, providing a more convenient and standardised medium of exchange.

Cities With Many Functions (Ancient)

Ancient Indian cities were not just residential areas; they served multiple functions that were crucial for the economy, administration, religion, and culture of the time. Different cities had different primary roles, although many combined several functions.

Examples of Cities with Multiple Functions:

• Capital cities: Cities like Patliputra (Mauryan capital), Mathura (capital of Surasena Mahajanapada, later a Kushana capital), Ujjain (Avanti capital), Kaushambi (Vatsa capital). These were centres of royal administration, had palaces, fortifications, armies, and also served as economic and cultural hubs.
• Religious centres: Cities important for religious reasons attracted pilgrims and had numerous temples, stupas, or monasteries. Varanasi (Kashi), Bodh Gaya, Mathura were important religious centres. They also often developed into trade centres to cater to pilgrims and religious institutions.
• Craft centres: Cities specialising in the production of specific crafts. Mathura was a centre for sculpture. Cities like Ujjain were also known for crafts.
• Port cities: Cities located on coasts or major rivers that were important for trade (internal and external). Barygaza (Bharuch), Arikamedu, Lothal were prominent port cities. They facilitated the movement of goods and people and were centres of economic activity.
• Market towns: Cities that served as important trading hubs, connecting different regions and facilitating exchange of goods.

*(Image shows a map of ancient India highlighting the locations of key cities that served as capitals, trade centres, or religious centres)*

Many cities combined several of these functions. For example, a capital city might also be a major religious centre or a hub for crafts and trade. This multi-functional nature contributed to the vibrancy and importance of urban centres in ancient Indian society and economy.

Crafts And Crafts Persons (Ancient)

Crafts played a significant role in the economy of ancient India, both in villages and, more importantly, in urban centres. Craftspersons possessed specialised skills and produced a wide range of goods, contributing to local needs and trade.

Variety of Crafts:

• Archaeological evidence and literary texts indicate the existence of numerous crafts, including:
  • Pottery (plain and decorated).
  • Metal working (copper, bronze, iron, gold, silver) for tools, weapons, vessels, ornaments.
  • Textile production (cotton, silk, wool) and weaving.
  • Bead making (from stone, glass, shell, terracotta).
  • Jewellery making.
  • Stone carving and sculpture.
  • Carpentry.
  • Making objects from ivory and shells.
• Cities were major centres for specialised and high-quality crafts. Workshops have been found at archaeological sites.

Crafts Persons and Guilds (Shrenis):

• Craftspersons often organised themselves into associations called guilds or shrenis, particularly from the period of Mahajanapadas onwards.
• Guilds provided training, procured raw materials, and marketed the finished products.
• They also served social and religious functions, sometimes acting as bankers or contributing to religious institutions.
• Inscriptions mention various guilds, indicating their importance in the economy and society.

Rules For Spinning And Weaving

• Literary texts and perhaps early legal codes might have contained rules related to crafts like spinning and weaving.
• For example, the Arthashastra (a treatise on statecraft attributed to Kautilya, relevant for the Mauryan period) provides details on state control and regulation of various economic activities, including crafts. It mentions rules about measuring cloth, wages for workers, and supervision of production.
• This suggests that the state sometimes regulated craft production, possibly for quality control, taxation, or maintaining order.

*(Image shows illustrations or depictions of ancient Indian craftspersons engaged in activities like pottery making, weaving, or metal working)*

Crafts were essential for the urban economy, supporting trade and providing goods for daily life, religious practices, and adornment. The organisation of craftspersons into guilds reflects the increasing complexity of the ancient Indian economy.

A Closer Look — Arikamedu

Arikamedu is an important archaeological site located near Pondicherry on the southeast coast of India. It was an ancient coastal settlement and trading station that had extensive trade contacts with the Roman world (the Mediterranean region) between the 2nd century BCE and the 2nd century CE.

Evidence of Trade with Rome:

• Archaeological excavations at Arikamedu, particularly led by Mortimer Wheeler in the 1940s, revealed strong evidence of trade with the Roman Empire.
• Finds included a large amount of Roman pottery, such as:
  • Arretine Ware: Red-glazed pottery made in Arretium (modern Arezzo) in Italy.
  • Amphorae: Tall, double-handled jars used for transporting liquids like wine or olive oil.
• Other Roman artifacts found include glass bowls, gems, and possibly Roman coins.
• Evidence of local craft production, such as bead-making (using semi-precious stones and glass), has also been found, suggesting that items were produced here, possibly for export.

*(Image shows photographs of excavated Roman pottery fragments found at Arikamedu, highlighting Arretine ware and amphora pieces)*

Significance of Arikamedu:

• Provides direct archaeological evidence of the extensive maritime trade between South India and the Roman Empire during the early centuries CE.
• Confirms the accounts found in classical texts (like the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea) about trade between the Roman world and India.
• Highlights the importance of coastal settlements as trading hubs.
• Shows that goods were not just exchanged but also produced locally (e.g., beads) for this trade.

Arikamedu is a key site for understanding the nature and extent of ancient Indian trade relations with the West and the integration of the South Indian economy into wider Indian Ocean trade networks.

How To Find Out About Trade And Traders (Ancient)

Reconstructing the history of trade and the lives of traders in ancient India requires gathering clues from various types of sources, as trade was a complex activity involving different regions, routes, goods, and people.

Sources for Studying Ancient Trade and Traders:

• Archaeological sources:
  • Coins: Provide evidence of economic activity, rulers, and trade routes (coins of a particular ruler found in a different region).
  • Pottery and artifacts: Finding goods from one region in another (e.g., Roman pottery in Arikamedu, Harappan seals in Mesopotamia).
  • Weights and measures: Indicate organised trade and standardisation (Harappan weights).
  • Ruins of ports and market towns: Provide physical evidence of trade infrastructure (Lothal dockyard, ruins of ancient markets).
  • Carvings and sculptures: Depicting scenes of trade, ships, merchants (e.g., on stupas).
• Literary sources:
  • Texts like the Arthashastra: Discuss state regulation of trade, taxes on goods, trade routes.
  • Jataka stories: Contain narratives about merchants, journeys, trade activities, and life in market towns.
  • Sangam literature: Describes ports, markets, and goods traded in South India.
  • Accounts by foreign travellers: Descriptions of ports, markets, trade goods, trade routes, and trading practices (Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, accounts by Chinese travellers, Arab travellers).
• Inscriptions: Mention trade guilds (shrenis), taxes on trade, donations by merchants, or records of trade-related activities.

A Poem About Trade

• Sangam literature contains poems that vividly describe trade activities in South India.
• These poems mention ports, the arrival of ships, the exchange of goods (e.g., spices, gems, textiles, ivory, horses), and the bustle of market towns.
• They might describe merchants, their wealth, and their interactions.
• Such poems provide insights into the nature of trade, the goods involved, the regions connected by trade, and the people who participated in it, from an indigenous perspective.

*(Image shows an illustration of a ship from ancient India or a busy market scene in an ancient Indian town)*

By drawing information from these diverse sources, historians can reconstruct the history of trade networks, the organisation of traders (guilds), the goods exchanged, and the significance of trade for the ancient Indian economy and urban life, from the Harappan period onwards.

New Kingdoms Along The Coasts (Trade context)

The flourishing maritime trade in ancient India, particularly along the coasts, contributed to the growth and prosperity of new kingdoms and port cities, especially in South India.

Early Kingdoms and Trade:

• During the period from around 2300 to 1700 years ago (overlapping with the late Sangam period and post-Mauryan era), several small kingdoms emerged or gained prominence along the coastlines of South India.
• The Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas were prominent ruling families in the Tamil region. They controlled territories along the coast and inland and were major participants in maritime trade.
• These kingdoms derived significant wealth from controlling ports, collecting taxes on trade, and participating in the exchange of goods.

Importance of Coastal Areas:

• Coastal regions facilitated maritime trade with other parts of India and with distant lands (e.g., Southeast Asia, Roman Empire).
• Port cities served as hubs for receiving goods, exporting local products (spices, pearls, textiles, gems), and connecting inland regions to the sea routes.
• The wealth generated from trade supported the rulers, contributed to the growth of urban centres, and funded cultural activities.

*(Image shows a map of South India indicating the regions of the Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas, and highlighting important coastal cities/ports)*

The growth of maritime trade played a crucial role in the rise and prosperity of these coastal kingdoms and urban centres in South India, connecting the subcontinent to wider Indian Ocean trade networks.

The Story Of The Silk Route

Besides maritime trade, ancient India was also connected to the outside world through overland trade routes. The most famous of these was the Silk Route.

The Silk Route:

• The Silk Route was a network of ancient trade routes connecting China to Central Asia, West Asia, and Europe.
• It was named the Silk Route because silk, produced in China, was a major commodity traded along these routes.
• India was also connected to the Silk Route through branches extending from Central Asia into northwestern India and extending further to Indian ports for maritime trade.

Trade on the Silk Route:

• Besides silk (imported from China), other goods were traded along the Silk Route, including spices, gems, textiles, and precious metals.
• Control over parts of the Silk Route was economically valuable.
• The Kushana rulers (who ruled in northwestern India and Central Asia around the 1st-3rd centuries CE) controlled a significant portion of the Silk Route. Their prosperity was linked to their control over this trade. They collected taxes on goods passing through their territory.

*(Image shows a map illustrating the Silk Route network, highlighting the main route from China through Central Asia and branches extending into India)*

Spread of Buddhism:

• The Silk Route was not just a route for trade but also for the exchange of ideas and cultures.
• Buddhism spread from India to Central Asia and China along the Silk Route, carried by monks, merchants, and pilgrims.

The Silk Route played a significant role in connecting ancient India to the wider world, facilitating trade, cultural exchange, and the spread of religions like Buddhism. The control of these routes was a source of wealth and power for the rulers who controlled them.

Towns And Trade (Ancient)

Towns and cities were the hubs of trade and urban life in ancient India. Their growth was intrinsically linked to the flourishing economy based on agriculture, crafts, and trade.

New Cities

• From the period of Mahajanapadas onwards (around 6th century BCE), numerous new cities emerged across the subcontinent. These cities often developed as capitals of kingdoms, religious centres, or important trading hubs.
• Examples: Patliputra, Rajagriha, Vaishali, Kaushambi, Ujjain, Mathura, Taxila, Sravasti, Varanasi in North India; and ports like Barygaza, Arikamedu, and cities like Madurai in South India.
• These cities were centres of political power, administration, craft production, and trade.

Urban Populations: Elites And Craftspersons

• Ancient cities were inhabited by diverse populations.
• Elites: Included rulers, officials, wealthy merchants, priests, and other prominent individuals who often lived in segregated or more elaborate areas.
• Craftspersons: Engaged in various crafts, often organised into guilds and living in specific quarters of the city.
• Merchants and traders: Involved in local and long-distance trade.
• Labourers and service providers: People who provided manual labour and other services needed in the city.

Trade In The Subcontinent And Beyond

• Trade networks connected villages to towns and cities (local and regional trade).
• Important trade routes (both overland and maritime) connected different regions of the subcontinent and linked India to distant lands in West Asia, Central Asia, Southeast Asia, and the Roman Empire.
• Goods traded included agricultural products, textiles, spices, gems, precious metals, ivory, timber, and finished craft products.
• Trade was facilitated by the use of coins, weights and measures, and possibly early forms of banking or credit.

Coins And Kings

• The use of coins became widespread from the Mahajanapada period onwards, replacing barter to a large extent in urban areas and trade.
• Different dynasties issued their own coins, which indicated their political authority and facilitated economic transactions within their territories and with trading partners.
• Coins served as a medium of exchange and a store of value, contributing to the growth of a monetised economy.
• Kings derived revenue from trade through taxes on goods and control over trade routes.

Towns and trade were interconnected phenomena that shaped the economy and urban life of ancient India, reflecting its growing complexity and connections with the wider world.